Status of Agricultural Genetic Resources in Chitwan, Nepal

Pallavi Shrestha (90)

Agricultural genetic resources are the biological basis of food security. The term agricultural genetic resources include plant as well as livestock animal genetic resources which are used for food and agriculture. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) defines plant genetic resources as ‘the reproductive or vegetative propagating material of: cultivated varieties (cultivars) in current use and newly developed varieties; obsolete cultivars; primitive cultivars (landraces); wild and weed species; near relatives of cultivated varieties; and special genetic stocks (including elite and current breeder's lines and mutants)’. These resources are used as food, feed, fiber, textiles, and energy. Their conservation and sustainable use is critical not only for feeding humanity, but also for environmental conservation and sustainable development.

Nepal is an agricultural country, rich in biodiversity. Despite covering less than 0.1% of the world’s land area, Nepal is home to 2.2% of the flowering plants, 1.4% of reptiles, 2.2% of fish, 8.5% of birds, 4.2% of butterflies and 4% of mammals found in the entire world (BPP, 1995). Nepal has three agro-ecological zones (Terai, Mid Hills and High Hills) which experience a wide range of climate from tropical and sub-tropical to temperate and tundra. Due to such climatic variation, there’s a great variability in flora and fauna, which has made Nepal the 10th richest country for agricultural biodiversity in Asia and 31^st in the world (Joshi & Ghimire, 2021). Nepal has 7000 flowering plant species which represent 203 angiosperm families (i.e. 50%) of about 410 families in the world. More than 500 species of edible genetic resources are available, of which more than 200 species are under cultivation (Upadhyay & Joshi 2003).

Fig 1: Status of Plant Biodiversity in Nepal

In Nepal, about 21% of the total land area is under cultivation, the major crops being rice (45%), maize (20%), wheat (18%), millet (5%) and potatoes (3%), followed by sugarcane, jute, cotton, tea, barley, legumes, vegetables and fruits. Crops like rice, rice bean, eggplant, buckwheat, soybean, foxtail millet, citrus, and mango have high genetic diversity relative to other food crops (Gautam, 2008).

Status of cereal genetic resources in Nepal:

Nepal is blessed with great diversity of cereals, grain legumes, vegetables, fruits, and other crops. In Nepal, at least four species of wild rice, Oryza nivara, O. rufipogon, O. granulata, and O. officinalis, two wild relatives of Hygroryza aristata and Leersia hexandra, and various types of weedy rice, such as O. sativa f. spontanea, have been identified. At the same time, many indigenous rice landraces are becoming extinct, including Anadi, Tauli, and Thapachiniya. Wheat wild relatives are mostly found in the hilly and mountainous regions. Wheat species Aegilops and Agropyrum have been documented. All varieties of wheat grown in Nepal so far are local and improved domestic varieties. Nepal has at least 11 species of Amaranthus among its 60 documented species worldwide and 3 species of Hordeum among the 32 species described worldwide. The sole cultivated species is Hordeum vulgare, whereas the other two are wild types. Buckwheat (Fagopyrum sp.), naked barley (Hordeum vukgare var. nudum L.), and finger millet (Eleusine sp.) have all been found in abundance in Nepal, indicating that they originated here (FAO, 2008).

Table 1: Status of Rice Landraces in Seti River Valley, Nepal

Widely Grown Landraces	Landraces Under Threat	Landraces Lost Over Time
Jethobudho	Pakhe Jhinuwa	Thimaha
Gurdi	Basaune Jhunuuwa	Tauli
Anadi	Bayarni	Darmali
Panhele	Panhele Jhiniuwa	Germani
Gayria	Marshi	Koili
Biramphool	Gudura	Budho Thakale
Ramani	Bardani	Ghote
Mansara	Batti Sara	Salidhan
Aanpjhutte	Pokhreli Jhiniuwa	Jhauri
Jerneli	Pagate Jhiniuwa	Thapachinia
Khaltekholo	Phane Silange	Bhamgera

Source: Country Report on the State of Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (FAO, 2008)

Status of grain legume genetic resources in Nepal:

Different wild species of grain legume crops are found in Nepal. In Kakani Mountain near Kathmandu valley is the forest of Atylosia species. Similarly, literatures indicate that at least 4 wild species of Atylosia, 3 wild species of Cicer and 5 wild species of Lathyrus have been are identified in Nepal. Most importantly, Nepal harbors several species and wild relatives of Lentil (Lens spp.). These wild species are locally used as fodder & feeds, ornamental plants, etc. The genetic resources of grain legumes are identified, collected, conserved and utilized by the National Grain Legume Research Program.

Status of vegetable genetic resources in Nepal:

Diverse genetic resources of vegetable crops have been identified in Nepal. These include the wild relatives of Chenopodium (2 species), Amaranthus (4 species), Colocasia (3 species), Pisum (3 species), Trigonella (2 species), Alium (3 species), Ipomoea (5 species), Rumex (3 species), Mentha (3 species), Solanum (2 species), Dioscorea (4 species), Curcuma (5 species), etc. that are found in Nepal (Joshi and Ghimire, 2012).

Status of fruit genetic resources in Nepal:

Besides the 38 major commercially cultivated fruit species, many indigenous species and wild relatives are found in Nepal. Several species of subtropical and tropical wild fruit relatives of the genera Annona, Citrus, Musa, Mangifera, Rhus and Phoenix have been documented. Similarly, wild relatives of temperate fruits like Prunus (9 spp), Malus, Morus, Castanopsis, and Rubus (3 species each), Berberis, Ficus, Olea, Pyrus, Vitis, and Hippophae (2 species each) are found. Apart from these, wild relatives of many subtropical and temperate fruits including apple, plum, pear, olive, walnut, etc. have been reported in Nepal (NAGRC, 2016).

Status of livestock animal genetic resources in Nepal:

Domestic livestock in Nepal belong to 17 species, including five Bovidae, seven Aves, two Equidae (not including mules), pig (Sus scrofa), rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and elephant (Loxodonta africana). Cattle (Bos taurus and Bos indicus) are the most numerous quadruped, followed by goats (Capra hircus), buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) and sheep (Ovis aries). Domestic fowl (Gallus domesticus) are the most common poultry, followed by pigeons (Columba livia) and ducks (Anas platyrhyncos). Wild relatives of livestock, including arna (Bubalus arnee), gaur (Bibos gaurus), wild boar (Sus scrofa), jungle fowl (Gallus gallus) and rock dove (Columba livia) are found in Nepal (Wilson, 1997). The indigenous cattle breeds found in various ecozones of Nepal are Lulu, Achami, Siri, Pahari, Khaila, and Yak, among which Achhami is the smallest cattle breed in the world. Lime, Parkote, Gaddi are the indigenous Hill buffalo breeds of Nepal (Mishra, 2013). Similarly, four indigenous breeds of goats are found in Nepal, namely, Chyangra (in mountains), Sinhal (in high hills and low mountains), Khari (in hills and mid hills), and Terai goat (in lower plains). Four breeds of sheep namely, Kage, Baruwal, Lampuchhre and Bhyanglung are indigenous to Nepal. Besides, Chwanche, Hurrah, Bampudke, Pakhribas black and Dharane kalo banggur are the native pig breeds of Nepal. Moreover, three indigenous poultry breeds are found in Nepal which are, Sakini, Ghanti Khuile and Pwankh Ulte. These indigenous breeds of livestock animals and poultry birds form an important component of animal genetic resources of Nepal.

Despite the availability of an array of landraces, wild relatives and indigenous varieties and breeds of different crops and livestock species in Nepal, these valuable genetic resources are being lost due to lack of proper conservation strategies.

Chitwan district:

Chitwan district is located in the southwestern part of Bagmati Province of Nepal. It extends from 27⁰21’45” N to 27⁰52’30” N longitudes and 83⁰54’45” E to 84⁰48’15” E latitudes at an elevation of 141m to 1947m above the sea level (PMAMP, 2020). About 58.2% of its area lies below 300m, 32.6% of area between 301-1000masl and 6.7% between 1001-2000masl with lower tropical, upper tropical and subtropical climate zones respectively.

Fig 2: Map of Chitwan district

Biodiversity Status in Chitwan:

The Chitwan valley is mainly characterized by tropical and subtropical forests. It is home to Chitwan National Park, the first national park of Nepal which was listed as a World Heritage Site in 1984. The national park plays a vital role in the district’s biological diversity as it harbors an exceptionally diverse vegetation and wildlife population. Roughly 70 percent of park vegetative cover is Sal (Shorea robusta) forest and the remaining vegetation types include grassland, riverine forest and Sal with Chir pine Pinus roxburghii. The riverine forests consist of Khair (Acacia catechu), Sissoo (Dalbergia sisoo) and Simal (Bombax ceiba) followed by Rhino Apple trees (Trewia nudiflora). The grasslands form a diverse and complex community with over 50 different types of grasses including the elephant grass (Saccharum spp.), renowned for its immense height. A total of 68 species of mammals, 56 species of herpeto fauna and 126 species of fish have been recorded in the park. Chitwan is especially renowned for One Horned Rhinoceros, Royal Bengal Tiger and Gharial Crocodile. 38 species of wild gharials are found in the district. Chitwan harbors not only the world’s largest terrestrial mammal (wild elephant) but also the world’s smallest terrestrial mammal (pygmy shrew). A total of 544 species of birds has been recorded so far including globally threatened species including critically endangered Bengal Florican, Slender-billed Vulture, White-rumped Vulture and Red-headed Vulture.

                        Fig 3: One horned rhinoceros                 Fig 4: Elephants in Chitwan National Park

Agrobiodiversity in Chitwan:

Rice is the major crop of Chitwan district. In addition, maize is grown in large areas of Chitwan. The district is famous for mustard oil which is accredited by large volume of mustard cultivation. Moreover, Chitwan is the leading district of Nepal in terms of poultry farming as well. The Prime Minister Agriculture Modernization Project has implemented zone program of four commodities namely, rice, banana, vegetable, and bee in different parts of Chitwan.

Chitwan district is further classified into two types of geographical areas – 38.75% of the area lies in valley and plain region whereas 20.65% land lies in hilly region. The type of agricultural genetic resources found depends on the geography and climate of that area.

Significant vegetables grown in Chitwan are: Potato, Cabbage, Brinjal, Broccoli, Cowpea, Snake gourd, Okra, Cucumber, Bitter gourd, Cauliflower, Pea, Chilly, Bottle gourd, Radish, Bean, Sponge gourd, Pumpkin, Tomato, Carrot, Capsicum, Taro/Cocoyam, Yam, Kohlrabi, Turnip, Beetroot, Chayote, Bethe, Amaranthus, Rayo, Spinach, Garden cress, Fenugreek, Lettuce, Pigweed, Bokchoy Swiss chard, Asparagus, etc. Similarly, the hybrid vegetables grown in Chitwan are: Potato, Cabbage, Brinjal, Broccoli, Cowpea, Okra, Cucumber, Bitter gourd, Cauliflower, Pointed gourd, Pumpkin, Tomato, Carrot, Capsicum, Kohlrabi, Turnip, Beetroot, Snake gourd, Pea, Chilly, Bottle gourd, Radish, Bean, Sponge gourd, Broad Leaf Mustard and Bokchoy (Devkota & Mishra, 2020).

                Fig 5: Agricultural farm of Chitwan                         Fig 6: Livestock resources of Chitwan

Table 2: Status of cereal crops in Chitwan in FY 2075/76

S.N.	Crops	Scientific Name	Area (ha)	Production (mt)	Productivity (mt/ha)
1.	Spring Rice	Oryza sativa	3653	16,290	4.46
2.	Monsoon Rice	Oryza sativa	22,886	89,069	3.89
3.	Maize	Zea mays	5,763	21,381	3.71
4.	Wheat	Triticum aestivum	5,055	23,199	4.59
5.	Millet	Eleusine coracana	1,483	1,522	1.03
6.	Barley	Hordeum vulgarae	19	36	1.92
7.	Buckwheat	Fagopyrum esculentum	67	73	1.09

Source: Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development, 2077

Table 3: Status of grain legumes in Chitwan in FY 2075/76

S.N.	Crops	Scientific Name	Area (ha)	Production (mt)	Productivity (mt/ha)
1.	Lentil	Lens esculenta	4,100	5,043	1.23
2.	Chickpea	Cicer arietinum	12	12	1.00
3.	Pigeon pea	Cajanus cajan	13	16	1.23
4.	Black gram	Phaseolus mungo	300	287	0.96
5.	Oilseeds	Brassica spp	12,896	12,892	1.00
6.	Horsegram	Dolichos biflorus	23	22	0.96
7.	Soybean	Glycine max	345	379	1.10
8.	Others		545	455	0.83

Source: PMAMP, PIU, Chitwan, 2019

Table 4: Status of fruits in Chitwan in FY 2075/76

S.N.	Crops	Scientific Name	Area (ha)	Production (mt)	Productivity (mt/ha)
1.	Mango	Mangifera indica	117	1033	8.81
2.	Banana	Musa paradisica	1412	26,432	18.72
3.	Guava	Psidium guajava	23	211	9.13
4.	Papaya	Carica papaya	27	674	24.73
5.	Jackfruit	Artocarpus heterophyllus	46	515	11.20
6.	Pineapple	Ananas comosus	51	811	16.1
7.	Litchi	Litchi chinensis	149	1236	8.3
8.	Mandarin orange	Citrus reticulata	110	1055	9.59
9.	Sweet orange	Citrus sinensis	19	130	6.73
10	Lime	Citrus aurantifolia	129	1185	9.16

 Source: PMAMP, PIU, Chitwan, 2019

Table 5: Status of vegetables in Chitwan in FY 2075/76

S.N.	Crops	Scientific Name	Area (ha)	Production (mt)	Productivity (mt/ha)
1.	Cauliflower	Brassica oleracea var botrytis	450	6719	14.93
2.	Cabbage	Brassica oleracea var capitata	340	5281	15.53
3.	Broccoli	Brassica oleracea var italic	225	3279	14.57
4.	Tomato	Lycopersicum esculentum	650	10,121	15.57
5.	Radish	Raphanus sativus	190	2985	15.71
6.	Broad leaf mustard	Brassica juncea	180	2602	14.46
7.	Carrot	Daucus carota	150	2161	14.40
8.	Sweet pepper	Capsicum annum	122	1520	12.46
9.	Sweet pea	Pisum sativum	280	3488	12.46
10.	Kidney bean	Phaseolous vulgaris	200	1869	9.34
11.	Chilli pepper	Capsicum frutescens	221	2639	11.94
12.	Okra	Abelmoschus esculentus	355	4938	13.91
13.	Eggplant	Solanum melongena	140	1788	12.77
14.	Onion	Alium cepa	7	73	10.38
15.	Cucumber	Cucumis sativus	466	7498	16.09
16.	Pumpkin	Cucurbita moschata	220	2741	12.46
17.	squash	Cucurbita spp	201	2504	12.46
18.	Other cucurbits		1542	22,949	14.88

Source: PMAMP, PIU, Chitwan, 2019

Diversity of medicinal and aromatic plants in Chitwan:

The Tharu tribe, along with the Darai, Majhi, and Chepang, are the main inhabitants of the Chitwan District. They live in and around the jungles, and have rich culture of using a variety of medicinal and aromatic plants. Some medicinal plant species reported in Chitwan are:

S.N.	Common Name	Scientific Name	S.N.	Common Name	Scientific Name
1.	Besar (Turmeric)	Curcuma longa	30.	Jwano	Trachyspermum ammi
2.	Tulsi	Ocimum sanctum	31.	Kutiko	Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora
3.	Neem	Azadirachta indica	32.	Hadchur	Viscum album
4.	Ghiukumari (Aloe)	Aloe vera	33.	Raktachandan	Pterocarpus santalinus
5.	Sarpagandha (Snake Plant)	Rauvolfia serpentine	34.	Rato Chyau	Amanita muscaria
6.	Kurilo (Asparagus)	Asparagus racemosus	35.	Bhang	Cannabis indica
7.	Dhaniya (Cilantro)	Coriandrum sativum	36.	Jamun	Syzigium cumini
8.	Aduwa (Ginger)	Zingiber officinale	37.	Nerbhanshe/ nirmanse	Delphinium denudatum
9.	Pipla (Long Pepper)	Piper longum	38.	Chutro	Berberis aristata
10.	Amala (Indian Gooseberry)	Phyllanthus officinalis	39.	Dalchini	Cinnamonum verum
11.	Jira (Cumin)	Cuminum cyminum	40.	Sotuwa	Paris polyphylla
12.	Tejpatta	Cinnamonum tamala	41.	Rudhilo	Pogostemon benghalensis
13.	Titepati	Artemisia vulgaris	42.	Harro	Terminalia chebula
14.	Datura	Datura metal	43.	Bojho	Acorus calamus
15.	Bryophyllum	Bryophhyllum pinnatum	44.	Bankapas	Abelmoschus moschatus
16.	Asare (Curry leaf)	Murraya koenigii	45.	Baliyari	Abutilon indicum
17.	Methi (Fenugreek)	Trigonella foenum-graecum	46.	Babul	Acacia nilotica
18.	Pudina (Mint)	Mentha spp	47.	Naksiruka	Achyranthes aspera
19.	Abhijalo	Drymaria cordata	48.	Asur	Adhatoda vasica
20.	Chiraito	Swertia chirayita	49.	Ratijari	Adiantum caudatum
21.	Dahikamala	Rhus typhina	50.	Rajbrikshya	Cassia fistula
22.	Gandhe	Ageratum conyzoides	51.	Banpyajia	Chlorophytum nepalense
23.	GhodTapre	Centella asiatica	52.	Jhusuna	Cyperus compressus
24.	Lajjawatijhar	Mimosa pudica	53.	Bhegruna	Eclipta prostrata
25.	Pahelo lahara	Clematis buchananiana	54.	Dudhiya jhyang	Euphorbia hirta
26.	Ashwagandha	Withania somnifera	55.	Indrakamal	Gardenia jasminoides
27.	Gurjo	Tinospora cordifolia	56.	Ramjeevan	Jatropha curcas
28.	Main kanda	Xeromphis spinosa	57.	Loga	Melothria heterophylla
29.	Jangali bayar	Ziziphus nummularia	58.	Miriya bikh	Polygonum barbatum

Source: Dangol & Gurung, 1991; Joshi et al., 2019

Besides the aforementioned commercially cultivated species, many local varieties, landraces and wild relatives of different crops are found in Chitwan which serve as important component of the agricultural biodiversity. This diversity is essential in agriculture to cope with the impacts of climate change and to develop resilient agroecosystems. However, several such genetic resources have become neglected and underutilized despite their genetic potential. Today’s agricultural systems focus on improving productivity. In this context, a strong focus on only provisioning ecosystem services has threatened plant genetic diversity, as uniform, improved varieties have displaced locally adapted varieties, eliminating considerable genetic resources from farmers’ fields. The erosion of these resources poses a severe threat to the world's food security in the long term. Realizing this fact, efforts are being undertaken from local to national and international levels to conserve the agrobiodiversity. Some notable activities conducted by different institutions in Chitwan and in national level are:

1. National Agricultural Genetic Resource Center, Khumaltar, Lalitpur

Realizing the significance of agricultural genetic resources in national development, the Government of Nepal and Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC) has established the National Agriculture Genetic Resources Center (Genebank) in 2010 for conservation and utilization of agro-biodiversity. Following conservation strategies have been adopted:

a.      Ex-situ conservation

-          Seed Bank, Tissue Bank, Cryo Bank, DNA Bank

-          Field Genebank, Botanical garden, Zoological gardens, Farms/Parks

b.      On-farm conservation

-          Household Seed Bank, Kitchen Garden,

-          Community Seed Bank, Community Field Genebank

-          Landrace Enhancement

c.       In-situ conservation

-          Protected areas (National parks, Conservation areas, Wildlife reserves, Hunting reserve)

-          World heritage sites, Ramsar sites and Religious places

d.      Breeding strategies

-          Evolutionary vs non-evolutionary

-          Diversity vs uniformity

-          Specific vs wide adaptation

e.      Utilization and distribution

The activities are mostly focused on acquisition of germplasm, their characterization, regeneration, conservation and utilization (Joshi et al., 2012).

2. NAST Genebank

3. Himalayan Seed Bank

4. Nepal Agriculture Research Council

There are many gene banks, seed banks, farms, research centers, organizations, and universities at local and regional levels working for the conservation of agricultural genetic resources and biodiversity as a whole. Some institutions in Chitwan district working for the purpose are:

1.      Chitwan National Park:

The park plays a vital role in conservation of wild animals, birds and vegetation in their natural habitat. Many rare and endangered species of mammals, reptiles, birds, insects, forest trees, shrubs and grasses which are enlisted in the IUCN red list are being conserved here.

2.      National Trust for Nature Conservation (NTNC) – Biodiversity Conservation Center

NTNC is a non-governmental organization working for the conservation of nature and natural resources. Biodiversity Conservation Center (BCC) is one of the major projects of NTNC working in and around the Chitwan National Park. BCC has undertaken various conservation initiatives from single species conservation to landscape level biodiversity conservation. It has been regularly carrying out monitoring of rhino, tiger and its prey base and birds. Vulture breeding center has recently been established with an objective to revive the dwindling population of two species of vultures in the wild. At the same time, it is helping to enhance local livelihoods through sustainable community development programmes.

3.      National Maize Research Program

With a vision of increasing production and productivity of maize and maize-based cropping system for improving the food and feed security in Nepal, NMRP works for maize genetic resources conservation as well. It emphasizes in collection, characterization, utilization and conservation of different local and exotic maize germplasms. It also conducts different researches to increase the genetic potential of our local varieties.

                    Fig 7: Maize genetic resources        Fig 8: National Maize Research Program

4.      National Cattle Research Program

Located in Rampur, Chitwan, the National Cattle Research Program works for conservation of local cattle germplasm and their genetic improvement by selective breeding and research.

5.      Horticulture Farm, Yagyapuri, Chitwan

On-farm conservation of germplasm of different horticultural crops are going on in this farm with support from NAGRC.

6.      Agriculture and Forestry University, Rampur, Chitwan

AFU conducts academics, research and extension programs to conserve crop and animal genetic resources. The Center for Biotechnology and Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics are working on germplasm conservation. AFU conducts many research programs that are associated with the identification of genetic resources of agricultural crops like rice, maize, wheat, etc. Along with identification, AFU conducts research to improve those genetic resources by varietal trials and improvement programs. 

                    Fig 9: Agriculture and Forestry University                        (Source: www.afu.edu/np)

The final year undergraduate students are engaged in Learning for Entrepreneurship (LEE) program where the students are involved in research and study related to the agricultural biodiversity and genetic resources of different districts of Nepal. The results of the researches are published as thesis reports by the university. Moreover, the students of post graduate and PHD level are also engaged in research related to agricultural genetic resources. AFU works in close connection with the National Maize Research Program, which works for the collection, conservation and maintenance of maize genetic resources. Besides, AFU collaborates with farmers for conservation and improvement of local varieties of crops and indigenous breeds of livestock and fishes. 

Despite the efforts of aforementioned institutions, agricultural genetic resources are still declining. Climate change, habitat loss, lack of infrastructures, lack of government policy, unplanned modernization and urbanization, indiscriminate use of agro-chemicals, replacement of local varieties and breeds by exotic ones, etc. are the major reasons behind agro-biodiversity loss. Therefore, proper government policy is needed in the first place. Increasing the genetic potential of local crop varieties and indigenous breeds of livestock, poultry and fish through breeding programs can play an important role in their conservation. Moreover, establishment of gene banks, seed and tissue banks, cryopreservation structures or cold stores at local community levels, district, regional, and national levels is necessary. Thorough extension programs are needed to spread education and awareness about the importance of indigenous, neglected and underutilized crops diversity in food security.

References:

Dangol, D. R., & Gurung, S. B. (1991). Ethnobotany of the tharu tribe of chitwan district, Nepal. Pharmaceutical Biology, 29(3), 203–209. https://doi.org/10.3109/13880209109082879

Devkota, P., & Mishra, S. (2020). Comparative Study of Vegetable Biodiversity in Terai and Hilly Belts of Chitwan, Nepal. Nepal Journal of Science and Technology, 19(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.3126/njst.v19i1.29731

Gautam J.C. (2008). Country Report on the State of Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (2008). Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations.

Joshi, A., Kalauni, D., & Bhattarai, S. (2019). Survey on usage of medicinal plants: a case from Chitwan district of Nepal. SAARC Journal of Agriculture, 16(2), 129–141. https://doi.org/10.3329/sja.v16i2.40265

Joshi, B. K., & Ghimire, K. (2021). Agricultural Plant Genetic Resources Management and Agriculture in Nepal Agricultural Plant Genetic Resources Management and Agriculture in Nepal. January.

Joshi, B. K., Ghimire, K., & Bhatta, M. (2012). An Introduction to National Agriculture Genetic Resources Center ( Genebank ). June 2019.

MoALD (2077). Statistical Information on Nepalese Agriculture 2076/77. Government of Nepal, Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development, Singhadurbar, Kathmandu, Nepal.

PMAMP, 2019. Fundamental Statistic Booklet of Rice Zone, Chitwan. Government of Nepal, Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development, Prime Minister Agriculture Modernization Project, Project Implementation Unit, Chitwan. June, 2019.

PMAMP, 2020. Annual Progress and Statistics Booklet of FY 2019/20. Government of Nepal, Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development, Prime Minister Agriculture Modernization Project, Project Implementation Unit, Chitwan. 2020.

Upadhaya, M. P., & Joshi, B. K. (2003). Plant genetic resources in SAARC countries: Their conservation and management: Nepal chapter. SAARC Agriculture Information Center, June, 297–422.

Wilson, R.T. (1997). Animal genetic resources and domestic animal diversity in Nepal. Biodiversity and Conservation 6, 233±251 (1997).

Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC)

Crop Wild Relatives | National Agriculture Genetic Resources Center (NAGRC - Nepal) - Crop Wild Relatives (cwrdiversity.org)

Biodiversity Conservation Center (BCC) | The National Trust for Nature Conservation (NTNC)

BIODIVERSITY (chitwannationalpark.gov.np)